Beginning of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent
People in the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and the Levantine coast begin deliberately cultivating crops such as wheat and barley.
Rise of the Jomon culture in Japan
On the Japanese archipelago, hunter-gatherers develop one of the earliest known pottery traditions in the world.
Construction of the first temple structures at Göbekli Tepe
In Anatolia, hunter-gatherers begin constructing monumental stone structures on a hilltop, possibly as a religious centre.
Clovis culture spreads across North America
Groups of hunters with distinctive stone spear points, known as the Clovis culture, travel across large parts of North America, hunting megafauna such as mammoths.
Early domestication of goats in the Zagros Mountains
In the mountainous regions of present-day Iran, communities begin taming and breeding wild goats, a crucial step towards animal husbandry.
Emergence of Jericho as a permanent settlement
On the shore of an oasis in the Jordan Valley, one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world grows into a walled settlement.
Early domestication of cattle in the Sahara and the Nile Valley
In the then still green Sahara region and along the Nile, communities begin taming and keeping wild cattle.
First plant cultivation in Mesoamerica
In the valleys of present-day Mexico, communities begin deliberately growing squash and other crops.
Rise of Çatalhöyük in Anatolia
In present-day Turkey, Çatalhöyük emerges, one of the largest and most densely populated early settlements in the world, with thousands of inhabitants in tightly clustered clay dwellings.
Early agricultural settlements along the Yellow River in China
Communities in the Yellow River basin begin cultivating millet and establish permanent villages, an early step towards Chinese civilization.
Establishment of Mehrgarh in the Indus Valley
In present-day Baluchistan (Pakistan), the settlement of Mehrgarh arises, one of the earliest known agricultural communities in South Asia.
Rise of animal husbandry in the Green Sahara
In the then-humid Sahara region, groups of hunter-gatherers begin keeping livestock, leading to early pastoral societies in North Africa.
Domestication of maize in Mesoamerica
In the mountain valleys of present-day Mexico, early farmers begin selecting and cultivating teosinte, the wild ancestor of maize.
Emergence of the Uruk culture in Mesopotamia
In southern Mesopotamia the Uruk culture emerges, with the world's first large urban centers.
Uruk expansion and early trade networks
The influence of Uruk spreads via trading posts and colonies as far as Anatolia and the Levant.
Naqada III culture: regional kingdoms along the Nile
In Upper Egypt powerful regional rulers emerge, laying the foundation for the later unification.
Unification of Egypt under Narmer
Narmer unites Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom, regarded as the beginning of the Egyptian state.
the rise of the Sumerian city-states
In Mesopotamia, powerful city-states such as Uruk, Ur and Kish arise, with temples, kings and the first forms of writing.
Consolidation of Early Dynastic Egypt
Under the first pharaohs, Egypt grows into a unified realm along the Nile, with a strong central authority and the first monumental building projects.
Golden age of Uruk under King Gilgamesh
The Sumerian city-state of Uruk reaches a peak of power under its legendary king Gilgamesh, with imposing city walls and temple construction.
rise of the Longshan culture in China
Along the Yellow River, fortified settlements and early urban centres emerge, laying the foundation for later Chinese civilisations.
flourishing of the Indus Valley civilisation
Along the river Indus, large, systematically planned cities such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa arise, with advanced sewage systems and trade.
construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza
In the Old Kingdom of Egypt, Pharaoh Khufu has the Great Pyramid built, the largest structure of the ancient world.
Construction of the Pyramid of Khafre
Pharaoh Khafre has a second great pyramid erected at Giza, slightly smaller than that of his father Khufu but built on higher ground.
Flourishing of Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley
In the Indus Valley, the city of Mohenjo-daro emerges as one of the earliest large-scale urban centers, with a sophisticated sewage system and standardized brick construction.
Royal cemeteries of Ur
In the Sumerian city-state of Ur, rich royal tombs are constructed, filled with golden jewellery, musical instruments and the remains of courtiers who followed their rulers into death.
Rise of Lagash under Eannatum
The Sumerian city-state of Lagash grows under King Eannatum into a regional power that subdues rival city-states in Mesopotamia.
Flourishing of Caral in the Andes
In the Supe Valley in present-day Peru, the city of Caral arises, one of the oldest urban centers of the Americas, with monumental pyramids and plazas.
The Akkadian Empire of Sargon
Sargon of Akkad unites the city-states of Mesopotamia into the world's first known territorial empire.
the Neo-Sumerian Empire of Ur-Nammu
After the fall of the Akkadian Empire, Ur-Nammu reunites Mesopotamia under the Third Dynasty of Ur, with a strongly centralized administration and extensive legislation.
the legendary Xia dynasty in China
According to Chinese tradition, the Xia dynasty arises along the Yellow River, regarded as the first dynasty and the beginning of Chinese imperial rule.
reunification of Egypt by Mentuhotep II
After the chaos of the First Intermediate Period, pharaoh Mentuhotep II reunites Upper and Lower Egypt, thereby ushering in the Middle Kingdom.
The Old Babylonian Empire of Hammurabi
Hammurabi unites Mesopotamia and issues his famous code of law.
Rise of the Kingdom of Kerma in Nubia
In the valley of the Upper Nile, Kerma grows into a powerful urban civilization that will rival Egypt for centuries.
Emergence of the Hittite Old Kingdom in Anatolia
In central Anatolia, King Hattusili I unites various city-states into the beginning of the mighty Hittite Empire.
Founding of the Shang dynasty in China
Along the Yellow River, the Shang dynasty establishes the first historically well-documented Chinese state, with bronze foundries and an early writing system.
The New Kingdom of Egypt
Egypt reaches its greatest territorial extent under pharaohs such as Thutmose III.
The Zhou dynasty defeats the Shang in China
The House of Zhou conquers the Shang Empire and establishes a new dynasty that claims the 'Mandate of Heaven' as justification for the seizure of power.
Rise of the Kingdom of Kush in Nubia
In the aftermath of the decline of the New Kingdom of Egypt, the independent Kingdom of Kush arises in Nubia, with Napata as its power centre.
Flourishing of the Olmec civilization in Mesoamerica
On the Gulf coast of present-day Mexico, the Olmec civilization develops, often regarded as the 'mother civilization' of Mesoamerica.
Consolidation of the Western Zhou dynasty in China
Under the Zhou kings, the 'Mandate of Heaven' is further developed as the ideological foundation of kingship, and the realm extends its influence over large parts of northern China.
Emergence of the independent kingdom of Kush in Nubia
After the withdrawal of Egyptian influence in Nubia, an independent Kushite kingdom emerges around the city of Napata, which partly adopts and further develops Egyptian culture and religion.
Rise of the Chavín culture in the Andes
In the highlands of Peru, the influential Chavín culture emerges, centered around the ceremonial complex of Chavín de Huántar, which served as a religious and cultural center for a large part of the Andean region.
The Neo-Assyrian Empire
Assyria becomes the most powerful empire of the Near East through ruthless military expansion.
Rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire
After the fall of Nineveh, the Babylonians seize power in Mesopotamia under Nabopolassar and later his son Nebuchadnezzar II.
Consolidation of the Median Empire
The Medes, allies of Babylon in the fall of Assyria, build a vast empire on the Iranian plateau and in Asia Minor under King Cyaxares.
Flourishing of the Lydian Empire under Croesus
In Asia Minor, the kingdom of Lydia grows under King Croesus into an empire renowned for its unprecedented wealth.
The Persian Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus the Great and his successors build the largest empire the ancient world had seen up to that point.
The Persian Wars against Greece
The Achaemenid Empire attempts to subjugate the Greek city-states, but is repelled at Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea.
Beginning of the Warring States period in China
The Chinese Zhou empire falls apart into rival states that wage war for decades over hegemony.
emergence of the Nanda empire in India
In northern India, the kingdom of Magadha grows into a powerful empire under the Nanda dynasty.
The Empire of Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great conquers a vast empire stretching from Greece to India.
Chandragupta Maurya founds the Maurya Empire in India
In northern India, Chandragupta Maurya unites numerous kingdoms into the first great pan-Indian empire, following the withdrawal of Alexander's troops.
founding of the Parthian Empire
The Iranian Parni tribe, led by Arsaces I, conquers Parthia from the Seleucids and lays the foundation for an empire that will remain the great power of the Middle East for centuries.
Qin Shi Huang unites China
King Zheng of Qin defeats the last rival states of the Warring States period and proclaims himself the first emperor of a unified China.
The Roman Empire
Rome grows into a world empire that dominates the entire Mediterranean region.
Golden Age of the Kingdom of Aksum
The East African empire of Aksum controls trade across the Red Sea and reaches its peak in power and prosperity.
Fall of the Gupta Empire in India
The mighty Gupta Empire in North India falls apart due to invasions by the Huns and internal division.
Justinian and the Byzantine reconquest
Emperor Justinian I attempts to restore the Western Roman Empire and has the Hagia Sophia built in Constantinople.
Justinian and the reconquest of the west
Emperor Justinian I attempts to restore the old Roman Empire in the west from Constantinople and has the Corpus Juris Civilis drawn up.
Flourishing of Teotihuacan and the Classic Maya cities
In Mesoamerica, powerful city-states such as Teotihuacan and the Maya cities of Tikal and Calakmul flourish.
Founding of the Tang dynasty in China
After the fall of the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty founds a new Chinese empire that grows into a cultural and economic superpower.
Reunification of China under the Sui and early Tang dynasty
After centuries of division, the Sui dynasty reunifies China, followed by the rise of the powerful Tang dynasty.
Fall of the Sassanid Empire
After centuries of war with Byzantium, the Persian Sassanid Empire is conquered by the rising Muslim armies.
Islamic conquests and the Umayyad Caliphate
From the Arabian Peninsula, Muslim armies expand rapidly across the Middle East, North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula under the Umayyad Caliphate.
Peak of the classic Maya civilization
In Mesoamerica, powerful Maya city-states such as Tikal and Calakmul flourish with monumental temples and an advanced script.
The Caliphate of the Abbasids
The Abbasids establish an Islamic empire with Baghdad as a flourishing centre of science and culture.
Founding of the Song dynasty in China
General Zhao Kuangyin seizes power and founds the Song dynasty, which reunifies China after decades of fragmentation.
Golden age of the Ghana Empire
The West African Ghana Empire reaches its height as a powerful trading empire, driven by the gold and salt trade across the Sahara.
construction of Angkor Wat by the Khmer Empire
King Suryavarman II has the enormous temple complex of Angkor Wat built as a Hindu sanctuary and symbol of royal power in Cambodia.
The Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan
Genghis Khan unites the Mongol tribes and founds the largest contiguous land empire in history.
The fall of Baghdad and the end of the Abbasid Caliphate
Mongol armies led by Hulagu Khan conquer Baghdad and destroy the mighty Abbasid Caliphate.
Osman I founds the Ottoman principality
In Anatolia, the Turkish leader Osman I proclaims a small principality that would later grow into the mighty Ottoman Empire.
Founding of Tenochtitlán by the Aztecs
The Mexica found their capital Tenochtitlán on an island in Lake Texcoco, later the heart of the Aztec Empire.
Mansa Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca
The ruler of the Mali Empire, Mansa Musa, undertakes an impressive hajj to Mecca, spreading enormous quantities of gold along the way.
Founding of the Vijayanagara Empire in South India
In South India, the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire is founded as a counterweight to the advancing Islamic sultanates of the north.
The Black Death spreads via the Mongol trade routes
The bubonic plague rages through Asia and Europe, partly spread via the Silk Road opened up by the Mongols, and decimates the world population.
Timur defeats the Ottomans at Ankara
The Central Asian conqueror Timur defeats Sultan Bayezid I and temporarily halts Ottoman expansion.
The fall of Constantinople and the rise of the Ottoman Empire
Sultan Mehmed II conquers Constantinople, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of a new Islamic great power.
The rise of the Songhai Empire in West Africa
Under the leadership of Sonni Ali and later Askia Mohammed, the Songhai Empire grows into one of the largest empires in African history.
Conquest of the Aztec Empire by Spanish conquistadors
Hernán Cortés, with a small army and local allies, defeats the mighty Aztec Empire and conquers the capital Tenochtitlán.
The Mughal Empire reaches its cultural peak under Akbar the Great
Emperor Akbar consolidates the Mughal Empire in India and promotes religious tolerance, art, and architecture.
The Manchus establish the Qing dynasty in China
After the fall of the Ming dynasty, the Manchus conquer China and found the Qing dynasty, which expands the empire to unprecedented size.
The Dutch East India Company becomes the most powerful trading company in the world
The Dutch VOC builds an extensive trading network in Asia and dominates the spice trade through forts and colonies such as Batavia.
The Kangxi Emperor consolidates the power of the Qing Empire
Under Emperor Kangxi, the Qing Empire conquers Taiwan and expands its grip on Central Asia, making China one of the most powerful empires in the world.
The Battle of Plassey and the beginning of British colonial rule in India
The British East India Company defeats the Nawab of Bengal at Plassey, clearing the way for British political dominance over the Indian subcontinent.
The Berlin Conference divides Africa
European powers meet to establish rules for the colonization of Africa, leading to a rapid and almost complete partition of the continent.
The First Sino-Japanese War
Japan defeats the Chinese Qing Empire and gains Taiwan and influence over Korea.
The Spanish-American War
The United States defeats Spain and acquires Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines.
The Russo-Japanese War
Japan defeats the Russian Empire on land and sea, the first victory of an Asian power over a European great power in the modern era.
The height of the British Empire
The British Empire reaches its greatest territorial extent, controlling nearly a quarter of the earth's surface.
Rise of the Japanese Empire in East Asia
Japan expands its power with the conquest of Manchuria and the founding of the vassal state of Manchukuo.
Italian conquest of Ethiopia
Mussolini's Italy attacks one of the last independent African states and occupies Ethiopia, to the outrage of the international community.
World War II undermines the colonial empires
The world war exhausts the European mother countries economically and militarily and strengthens independence movements in the colonies.
Decolonization and the end of the European colonial empires
After the Second World War, the great European colonial empires fall apart due to independence movements worldwide.
Fall of the Soviet Union and end of the Cold War
The dissolution of the Soviet Union marks the end of the bipolar world order that had emerged after the Second World War.
India's economic liberalization
India breaks with decades of protectionism and opens its economy to foreign trade and investment.
Treaty of Maastricht and the establishment of the European Union
The European Community transforms into the European Union, with a common currency on the horizon.
Founding of the World Trade Organization
The WTO is established as the successor to the GATT to regulate global trade.
Return of Hong Kong to China
The United Kingdom transfers the crown colony of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China.
NATO bombing of Yugoslavia
NATO intervenes militarily against the Serbs without a UN mandate because of the crisis in Kosovo, revealing the limits of the new world order.
China's rise as an economic world power
Through decades of market-oriented reforms, China grows into the world's second-largest economy and a geopolitical superpower.
Formation of continental power blocs
Regional cooperative structures such as a deepened African Union, a more cohesive ASEAN and a more federal Europe grow into quasi-state power blocs.
The Great Climate Migrations and Resource Wars
Extreme climate change disrupts agricultural regions worldwide, leading to mass migration flows and armed conflicts over water and food.
Founding of the Planetary Climate Council
Under pressure from ongoing crises, the remaining power blocs establish a supranational body with binding authority over climate, spaceflight and resource management.
The United Earth Federation (speculative)
A fictional, future global government emerges from climate crises and technological integration, forming the first true planetary empire.
the interstellar empire (speculative)
Humanity establishes colonies beyond the solar system and founds the first empire spanning multiple star systems.
The Caliphate of the Abbasids
After overthrowing the Umayyads, the Abbasids founded a caliphate that stretched from North Africa to Central Asia. Baghdad became the intellectual heart of the medieval world, with the famous House of Wisdom where scholars from many cultures translated and further developed works on mathematics, astronomy and philosophy. This period is often called the Golden Age of Islam.